What is selectivity expressed as a criterion of mindfulness. activity and attention. General characteristics of attention

Introduction 3

1. Problems of attention in psychology 5

2. Types and properties of attention 10

Conclusion 16

List of used literature 18

Introduction

All processes of cognition, whether it be perception or thinking, are directed to one or another object that is reflected in them: we perceive something, think about something, imagine or imagine something. At the same time, it is not perception in itself that perceives, and it is not thought itself that thinks; a person perceives and thinks - a perceiving and thinking person. Therefore, in each of the above processes, there is always some kind of relation of personality to the world, subject to object, consciousness to the object. This attitude finds expression in attention.

Sensation and perception, memory, thinking, imagination - each of these processes has its own specific content; each process is a unity of image and activity: perception is the unity of the process of perception - perception - and perception as an image of an object or phenomenon of reality; thinking - the unity of thinking as activity and thought as content - concepts, general ideas, judgments. Attention has no special content of its own; it manifests itself within perception, thinking. It is a side of all cognitive processes of consciousness, and, moreover, that side of them in which they act as an activity directed at an object.

Since attention expresses the relationship between subject and object, a certain two-sidedness is also observed in it; on the one hand, attention is directed to the object, on the other hand, the object attracts attention. The reasons for attention to this, and not to another object, are not only in the subject, they are also in the object, and even, above all, in it, in its properties and qualities; but they are not in the object in itself, just as they are still less in the subject in itself, they are in the object taken in its relation to the subject, and in the subject in its relation to the object.

Attention is usually phenomenologically characterized by the selective focus of consciousness on a certain object, which is realized with particular clarity and distinctness. Selective focus is a central phenomenon in attention. In the higher forms of attention, the activity, spontaneity of the subject appears.

The appearance of attention in the process of perception means that a person not only hears, but also listens or even listens or listens, not only sees, but also looks, peers, considers, his perception turns into operating data and sometimes obtaining them for a specific purpose.

The presence of attention means, therefore, first of all, a change in the structure of the process, a transition from vision to looking, to peering, from perception to observation, from process to purposeful activity.

The problem of attention in psychology

No other mental process is mentioned so often in everyday life and at the same time finds its place in scientific concepts with such difficulty as attention. In everyday psychology, success in study and work is often explained by attention, and mistakes, blunders and failures are often explained by inattention. However, in psychological science, the problem of attention stands somewhat apart, and researchers have significant difficulties in interpreting this concept and the phenomena behind it.

This situation is due to two extremely important facts.

· Firstly, many authors emphasize the "dependence" of attention as a mental process. Both for the subject himself and for an outside observer, it is revealed as the direction, mood and concentration of any mental activity, therefore, only as a side or property of this activity.

· Secondly, attention does not have its own separate, specific product. Its result is the improvement of every activity to which it joins. Meanwhile, it is the presence of a characteristic product that serves as an equal proof of the corresponding function. In this regard, some theoretical approaches deny the specificity of attention and the single essence of its manifestations - attention is considered as a by-product and characteristic of other processes.

A person does not process all the information coming from the outside world, and does not respond to all influences. Among the variety of stimuli, he selects only those that are related to his needs and interests, expectations and relationships, goals and objectives - for example, loud sounds and bright flashes attract attention not because of their increased intensity, but because such a reaction responds to safety needs of a living being. Due to the fact that attention is focused only on certain objects and only on the performance of certain tasks, the place of attention in a particular psychological concept depends on the importance attached to the activity of the subject of mental activity.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the following criteria for attention:

1. External reactions - motor and autonomic reactions that provide conditions for better signal perception. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components;

2. Concentration on the performance of a certain activity - the state of the subject's preoccupation with the subject of activity, distraction from side, non-related conditions and objects;

3. Increasing the productivity of cognitive and executive activities;

4. Selectivity (selectivity) of information. This criterion is expressed in the ability to actively perceive, memorize, analyze only part of the incoming information, as well as in response to a limited range of external stimuli;

5. Clarity and distinctness of the content of consciousness, which is in the field of attention.

The concept of "dominant" was introduced by the Russian physiologist A. Ukhtomsky. According to his ideas, excitation is distributed unevenly throughout the nervous system. Each activity can create centers of optimal excitation in the nervous system, which become dominant. They not only dominate and inhibit other foci of nervous excitation, but even increase under the influence of extraneous excitation. It was this characteristic of the dominant that allowed Ukhtomsky to regard it as a physiological mechanism of attention.

The selective nature of the course of mental processes is possible only in the state of wakefulness, which is provided by a special structure of the brain - the reticular formation. Selective activation is provided by the descending influences of the reticular formation, the fibers of which begin in the cerebral cortex and go to the motor nuclei of the spinal cord. Separation of the reticular formation from the cerebral cortex leads to a decrease in tone and induces sleep. Violations of the functioning of the reticular formation lead to impaired attention.

The concept of "orienting reflex" was introduced by I.P. Pavlov and is associated with the active reaction of the animal to every change in the situation, manifested through a general animation and a number of selective reactions. I.P. Pavlov figuratively called this reaction the “what is it?” reflex. Orienting reactions have a clear biological meaning and are expressed in a number of distinct electrophysiological, vascular and motor reactions, which include turning the eyes and head towards a new object, changes in galvanic skin and vascular reactions, imputation of breathing, the occurrence of desynchronization phenomena in the bioelectrical activity of the brain. With repeated repetition of the same stimulus, the orienting reaction fades away. The body gets used to this irritant. Such habituation is a very important mechanism in the development of the child's cognitive activity. In this case, only a slight change in the stimulus is enough for the orienting reaction to appear.

Another view of the mechanisms of attention has developed within the framework of cognitive psychology. In 1958, D. Broadbent in his book "Perception and Communication" compared the functioning of attention with the work of an electromechanical filter that selects (selects) information and protects the information transmission channel from overload. The term has taken root in cognitive psychology and has given rise to a significant number of attention patterns. All models of this kind can be conditionally divided into models of early and late selection. Models of early selection (first of all, the model of D. Broadbent belongs to them) suggest that information is selected on the basis of sensory features by an all-or-nothing filter. Late selection models (the most famous is the D. Navon model) assume that all incoming information is processed and recognized in parallel, after which the selected information is stored in memory, and the unselected information is quickly forgotten. Various compromise options have also been proposed.

S.L. Rubinstein, developing his concept of mental activity, believed that attention has no content of its own. According to this scientist, the attitude of the individual to the world, the subject to the subject, consciousness to the object is manifested in attention. He wrote that "the interests and needs, attitudes and orientation of the individual are always behind attention."

Views close to these were expressed by N.F. Dobrynin. He considered attention to be a form of manifestation of personality activity and believed that when describing attention, one should speak not about the orientation of consciousness towards an object, but about the orientation of consciousness towards activity with an object. In his concept, attention was defined as the direction and concentration of mental activity. Under the orientation, the scientist understood the choice of activity and the maintenance of this choice, and under concentration - deepening into this activity and detachment, distraction from any other activity.

In the theory of P. Ya. Galperin, attention is considered as a process of control over actions. In real life, we constantly perform several simultaneous actions: we walk, we look, we think, and so on. Such an experience of self-observation would seem to be inconsistent with the data of experiments, which show how difficult the task of combining two actions is. However, most combinations are made possible by automation or by changing the level of control. Similar views are gaining popularity in modern Western conceptions of attention.

Types and properties of attention

Attention is the focus and concentration of consciousness at a given moment of time on some real or ideal object. Attention helps to better understand oneself, one's thoughts and experiences, since its purpose is to improve the activity of all cognitive processes. Related to this is the peculiarity of attention, which, unlike other cognitive processes, does not have its own product.

It seems legitimate to identify attention with a clear, distinct area of consciousness, as mentioned earlier.

Getting into this area, the objects of our activity are perceived by us much more clearly, their changes are better noticed and fixed, which helps to achieve the desired result faster and more accurately.

Attention is closely connected with the volitional activity of a person. Classification on the basis of arbitrariness is the most traditional: historians of psychology find the division of attention into voluntary and involuntary already in Aristotle. In accordance with the degree of participation of the will in focusing attention, N.F. Dobrynin identified three types of attention:

involuntary;
arbitrary;
post-voluntary.

involuntary attention arises unintentionally, without any special efforts. In its origin, it is most of all associated with "orienting reflexes" (I.P. Pavlov). The reasons that cause involuntary attention lie primarily in the characteristics of external influences - stimuli. Among these features is the strength of the stimulus. Strong stimuli (bright light, intense colors, loud noises, pungent odors) easily attract attention, because, according to the law of force, the stronger the stimulus, the greater the excitement it causes. Of great importance is not only the absolute, but also the relative strength of irritation, i.e. the ratio of the strength of this impact with the strength of other, background, stimuli. No matter how strong the stimulus is, it may not attract attention if it is given against the background of other strong stimuli. In the noise of a big city, individual, even loud, sounds remain outside our attention, although they easily attract him when they are heard at night in silence. On the other hand, even the weakest stimuli become an object of attention if they are given against the background of the complete absence of other stimuli: the slightest whisper in complete silence around, a very weak light in the dark, etc. In all these cases, the contrast between stimuli is decisive. It can concern not only the strength of stimuli, but also their other features.

A person involuntarily pays attention to any significant difference: in shape, size, color, duration of action, etc. A small object stands out more easily among large ones; long sound - among jerky, short sounds; colored circle - among whites. The number is noticeable among the letters; foreign word - in Russian text; triangle - next to the squares. To a large extent, sharp or repeated changes in stimuli attract attention: significant changes in the appearance of well-known people, things, periodic amplification or weakening of sound, light, etc. The movement of objects is perceived in a similar way.

An important source of involuntary attention is the novelty of objects and phenomena. Template, stereotypical, repetitive does not attract attention. The new easily becomes the object of attention - to the extent that it can be understood. For this, the new must find support in past experience. Caused by external stimuli, involuntary attention is essentially determined by the state of the person himself.

The same objects or phenomena may become the object of attention or not attract it, depending on the state of the person at the moment. An important role is played by the needs and interests of people, their attitude to what affects them. Everything that is connected with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of human needs (both organic, material, and spiritual, cultural) easily becomes the object of involuntary attention, everything that corresponds to his interests, to which he has a definite, clearly expressed and especially emotional attitude. Those who are interested in sports will pay attention to a poster announcing a sporting event, while a musician's attention will be attracted by an announcement about a concert, and so on.

A significant role is played by the mood and emotional state of a person, which to a large extent determine the choice of the object of attention. The physical condition of a person is essential. In a state of severe fatigue, one often does not notice that which easily attracts attention in a cheerful state.

Arbitrary attention has a clearly expressed conscious, volitional character and is observed during the deliberate performance of any activity. It is an indispensable condition for labor, training, and work in general.

For the effective implementation of any activity, expediency, concentration, direction and organization, the ability to be distracted from what is not essential for obtaining the intended result, are always necessary.

Thanks to voluntary attention, people can engage not only in what they are directly interested in, captures, excites, but also in what does not have immediate attractiveness, but is necessary. The less a person is carried away by work, the more volitional efforts are required to focus attention.

The reason that causes and maintains voluntary attention is the awareness of the value of the object of attention for the performance of this activity, the satisfaction of needs, while with involuntary attention the value of the object may not be realized.

Making significant efforts to get involved in the work, for example, starting to solve a complex geometric problem, the student, having found interesting ways to solve it, can be so carried away by the work that volitional efforts become unnecessary, although the consciously set goal will remain. This type of attention was named by N.F. Dobrynin post-voluntary attention. For a person whose work is creative, this form of attention is very characteristic.

A decrease in volitional tension with involuntary attention may be the result of the development of labor skills, especially the habit of working in a certain mode with concentration.

· Concentration of attention characterizes the intensity of concentration and the degree of distraction from everything that is not included in the field of attention. An important condition for maintaining the optimal intensity of attention is the rational organization of labor, taking into account the individual characteristics of working capacity, as well as optimal external conditions (silence, lighting, etc.).

Distribution of attention is such an organization of mental activity in which two or more actions are performed simultaneously, the ability to control several independent processes without losing any of them from the field of one's attention. Many famous personalities could perform several activities at the same time. The main condition for the successful distribution of attention is that at least one action must be at least partially automated, brought to the level of a skill. Therefore, it is possible, for example, to easily combine watching a movie on TV and some manual work. It is more difficult to perform two types of mental labor. The most difficult thing is the distribution of attention between two thought processes with different content (for example, thinking about a thought and listening to a reasoning on a different topic). An attempt to be well aware of both series of thoughts causes a state of emotional tension. The distribution of attention is often supplemented or replaced by its rapid switching.

Attention span is the amount of unrelated objects that can be perceived clearly and distinctly at the same time. It follows from the definition that the volume of attention is less than the volume of perception. In an adult, the amount of attention is on average 7+-2 elements. The limited scope of attention must be taken into account in practice in those cases where it is necessary that visual information is “grasped” instantly.

Switching attention is a conscious, deliberate, purposeful change in the direction of mental activity, due to the setting of a new goal. Thus, any transfer of attention to another object cannot be attributed to switching. Training, special training can improve the shifting of attention. At the same time, the possibility of training this property of attention is limited, due to the close relationship between the switchability of attention and the mobility of nervous processes. Sometimes there are completed (complete) and incomplete (incomplete) switching of attention. In the second case, after switching to a new activity, a return to the previous one periodically occurs, which leads to errors and a decrease in the pace of work. This happens, for example, when a new activity is uninteresting or when its necessity is not recognized. Switching attention is difficult with its high concentration - as a result, the so-called absent-mindedness errors occur, which are often noted as a characteristic feature of great scientists focused on the subject of their research.

Stability of attention is determined by the duration during which its concentration is maintained. It depends on the characteristics of the material, the degree of its difficulty, comprehensibility, and the general attitude of the subject to it.

It should be noted that there are short-term fluctuations in attention that are not noticed by the subject and do not affect the productivity of his activity, for example, in the case of blinking. Such fluctuations are inevitable.

Conclusion

Attention not only transfers and keeps the object in the zone of clear consciousness, but also helps to distract from thoughts and ideas that are unnecessary at the moment, filtering them out and preventing focus on extraneous (for this activity) things.

Attention is closely connected with the volitional activity of a person. In accordance with the degree of participation of the will in focusing attention, N.F. Dobrynin identified three types of attention: involuntary; arbitrary; post-voluntary.

Involuntary attention occurs unintentionally, without any special effort.

Arbitrary attention has a clearly expressed conscious, volitional character and is observed during the deliberate performance of any activity.

Post-voluntary attention occurs when there is an interest in the activity being performed and maintaining sustained attention no longer requires constant volitional efforts.

The properties (characteristics) of attention include its concentration, distribution, volume, switching and stability.

Concentration of attention characterizes the intensity of concentration and the degree of distraction from everything that is not included in the field of attention.

The distribution of attention is such an organization of mental activity in which two or more actions are performed simultaneously, the ability to control several independent processes without losing any of them from the field of one's attention.

Attention span is the amount of unrelated objects that can be perceived clearly and distinctly at the same time.

Switching attention is a conscious, deliberate, purposeful change in the direction of mental activity, due to the setting of a new goal.

The stability of attention is determined by the duration during which its concentration is maintained.

Bibliography:

2. Zhdan A.N. History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day: Textbook for universities. M., 2005.

3. Bordovskaya N. Pedagogy: Textbook for universities. SPb., 2006.

4. Kravchenko A.I. Psychology and Pedagogy: Textbook.-M.: INFRA-M, 2008.-400 p.

5. Pedagogy and psychology of higher education // Ed. M. V. Bulanova-Toporkova. - Rostov n / D., 2002.

6. Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy Textbook 4th ed., Revised. and additional M: Gardariki, 2003. Hardcover. 519 p.

Grigorovich L.A., Martsinkovskaya T.D. Pedagogy and psychology: Proc. allowance. - M.: Gardariki, 2003. - 480 p.

Zhdan A.N. History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day: Textbook for universities. M., 2005.

Kravchenko A.I. Psychology and Pedagogy: Textbook.-M.: INFRA-M, 2008.-400 p.

Theme 5

ATTENTION

Types of attention

Attention Properties

Mental states of non-pathological disorganization of consciousness

General characteristics of attention

Attention - this is the orientation and concentration of consciousness, which involve an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity of the individual .

The focus criteria are:

1) external reactions:

motor (head turns, eye fixation, facial expressions, posture of concentration);
vegetative (holding the breath, vegetative components of the orienting reaction);

2) focus on the performance of certain activities and control;

3) an increase in the productivity of activity (attentive action, more effective than "inattentive");

4) selectivity (selectivity) of information;

5) clarity and distinctness of the contents of consciousness that are in the field of consciousness.

Thanks to attention, a person selects the necessary information, ensures the selectivity of various programs of his activity, and maintains proper control over his behavior (Fig. 1).

Basic functions of attention

Activation of necessary and inhibition of currently unnecessary psychological and physiological processes

Promoting organized and purposeful selection of information entering the body in accordance with its actual needs

Ensuring selective and prolonged concentration of mental activity on the same object or type of activity

Rice. 1. Functions of attention

Attention accompanies any activity as an integral element of various mental (perception, memory, thinking) and motor processes. Attention is given to:

accuracy and detail of perception (attention is a kind of amplifier that allows you to distinguish image details);
strength and selectivity of memory (attention acts as a factor contributing to the preservation of the necessary information in short-term and operative memory);
orientation and productivity of thinking (attention acts as an obligatory factor in the correct understanding and solution of the problem).

Unlike cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, etc.), attention does not have its own special content; it manifests itself, as it were, within these processes and is inseparable from them.

In the system of interpersonal relations, attention contributes to better mutual understanding, adaptation of people to each other, prevention and timely resolution of interpersonal conflicts. Attention, on the one hand, is a complex cognitive process, on the other− mental state resulting in improved performance. Attention is generated by activity and accompanies it, behind it there are always interests, attitudes, needs, orientation of the individual. In the context of the professional activities of a lawyer (investigator, prosecutor, lawyer, judge), the importance of attention is especially high.

Types of attention

There are several different classifications of attention. The most traditional is the classification on the basis of arbitrariness
(Fig. 2).

involuntary

Arbitrary

Post-voluntary

Types of attention

Rice. 10.2. Attention classification

involuntary attentiondoes not require effort, it is attracted either by a strong, or a new, or interesting stimulus. The main function of involuntary attention lies in quick and correct orientation in constantly changing environmental conditions, in highlighting those objects that may have the greatest vital or personal significance at the moment. In the scientific literature, you can find different synonyms for involuntary attention. In some studies, it is called passive, thus emphasizing the dependence of involuntary attention on the object that attracted it, and emphasize the lack of effort on the part of the person to focus. In others, involuntary attention is called emotional, thereby noting the connection between the object of attention and emotions, interests and needs. In this case, as well as in the first, there are no volitional efforts aimed at focusing attention.

Arbitrary attentionIt is peculiar only to a person and is characterized by an active, purposeful concentration of consciousness associated with volitional efforts. Synonyms for the word arbitrary (attention) are the words active and volitional. All three terms emphasize the active position of the individual when focusing attention on the object. Arbitrary attention occurs in cases when a person in his activity sets himself a certain goal, task and consciously develops a program of action. The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of the course of mental processes. This kind of attention is closely connected with the will, it requires volitional effort, which is experienced as tension, the mobilization of forces to solve the task. It is thanks to the presence of voluntary attention that a person is able to actively, selectively "extract" the information he needs from memory, highlight the main, essential, make the right decisions, and implement plans that arise in activity.

Post-voluntary attentionis found in those cases when a person, forgetting about everything, goes headlong into work. This type of attention is characterized by a combination of volitional orientation with favorable external and internal conditions of activity. Unlike involuntary attention, post-voluntary attention is associated with conscious goals and is supported by conscious interests. The difference between post-voluntary attention and voluntary attention is in the absence of volitional effort.

These types of attention are interconnected and should not be artificially considered as independent of each other (Table 1).

Table 1

Comparative characteristics of types of attention

View attention	Conditions occurrence	Main characteristics	Mechanisms
involuntary	The action of a strong, contrasting or significant stimulus that causes an emotional response	Involuntariness, ease of occurrence and switching	Orienting reflex or dominant, characterizing a more or less stable interest of the individual
Arbitrary	Statement (acceptance) of the problem	Orientation in accordance with the task. Requires strong-willed efforts, tiring	The leading role of the second signal system
Post-voluntary	Entry into activities and the resulting interest	Purposefulness is maintained, stress is relieved	Dominant characterizing the interest that has arisen in the process of this activity

Attention Properties

Attention is characterized by such properties as volume, switching, distribution, concentration, stability and selectivity (Fig. 3).

Volume

Determined by the number of simultaneously (within 0.1 s) clearly perceived objects

Switching

Distribution

Sustainability

Selectivity

Dynamic characteristic that determines the ability to quickly move from one object to another

Characterized by the ability to simultaneously successfully perform several different types of activities (actions)

Determined by the duration of concentration of attention on the object

Associated with the ability to successfully tune (in the presence of interference) to the perception of information related to a conscious goal

Concentration

Expressed in the degree of focus on the object

Attention Properties

Rice. 3. Properties of attention

attention span measured by the number of objects (elements) perceived at the same time. It has been established that when perceiving many simple objects within 1–1.5 s, the amount of attention in an adult is on average 7–9 elements. The amount of attention depends on the professional activity of a person, his experience, mental development. The amount of attention increases significantly if the objects are grouped, systematized. There is such a pattern: the greater the intensity (strength) of attention, the less volume, and vice versa. This feature of attention should be taken into account during the inspection of the scene, the search. Expansion of the scope of attention can lead to the fact that small details, objects, and various kinds of traces may fall out of the field of view. An important and defining feature of attention is that it practically does not change during training and training.

Switching attentionmanifests itself in the deliberate transition of the subject from one activity to another, from one object to another. In general, shifting attention means the ability to quickly navigate in a complex changing environment. This property of attention largely depends on the individual characteristics of the higher nervous activity of a person - the balance and mobility of nervous processes. Depending on the type of higher nervous activity, the attention of some people is more mobile, while others are less mobile. The ease of switching attention also depends on the relationship between previous and subsequent activities and the attitude of the subject to each of them. The more interesting this activity is for a person, the easier it is for him to switch to it. Switching can be determined by a program of conscious behavior, the requirements of an activity, the need to be included in a new activity in accordance with changing conditions, or carried out for recreational purposes. For example, alternation of interrogations with the preparation of procedural documents, the study of received materials with the reception of visitors. This individual feature should be taken into account in professional selection. High switchability of attention is a necessary quality of an investigator. It should be noted that the switchability of attention is one of the well-trained qualities.

Distribution of attention- this is, firstly, the ability to maintain a sufficient level of concentration for as long as is appropriate for this activity; secondly, the ability to resist distractions, random interference in work. The distribution of attention largely depends on the experience of a person, his knowledge and skills.

The ability to distribute attention is a professionally important quality of a lawyer (investigator, prosecutor, judge). So, the investigator, while conducting a search, simultaneously examines the premises, maintains contact with the suspect, observes the slightest changes in his mental state, and makes an assumption about the most likely places of burial of the objects sought.

Sustainability of attentionthis is the ability to delay perception for a long time on certain objects of the surrounding reality. It is known that attention is subject to periodic involuntary fluctuations that occur when a person is engaged in any activity for a long time. Experimental studies have shown that under these conditions, involuntary distraction of attention from the object occurs after 15 - 20 minutes. The simplest way to maintain the stability of attention is an effort of will, but its action will continue until the possibilities of the psyche are exhausted, after which a state of fatigue will inevitably manifest itself. If the work is monotonous and is associated with significant psycho-physiological overloads, fatigue can be prevented by short breaks in work. The stability of attention can be extended for a certain time if you try to find (reveal) new aspects and connections in this or that subject, look at the subject from a different angle. This property of attention is extremely necessary for the investigator at the stage of inspection of the scene.

Selectivity of attentionis the ability to focus on the most important objects.

Concentration of attentionis the degree or intensity of concentration. Attention focus is sometimes called concentration, and these concepts are considered as synonyms. . However, the concentration of attention on one object leads to a positive result only if the subject is able to timely and consistently switch it to other objects. Therefore, such properties of attention as concentration, distribution and volume are closely related.

Distractibility is the involuntary movement of attention from one object to another.

Distractibility occurs when extraneous stimuli act on a person who is currently engaged in some kind of activity. Distinguish between external and internal distractibility.External distractibilityoccurs under the influence of external stimuli, internal
nya - under the influence of strong feelings, extraneous emotions, due to a lack of interest in the business that the person is currently busy with.

Attentiveness is a professionally important property of a lawyer's personality. Its formation occurs in the course of active participation in professional activities, as a result of the development of the will, awareness of the importance of the tasks to be solved. Attention underlies such professionally significant properties of a lawyer as observation, curiosity, high efficiency and creative activity.

The development of the ability to manage one's attention is inextricably linked with the formation of the personality of a lawyer, with his attitude to the profession, people, with the development of such qualities as organization, discipline, endurance, perseverance and self-control.

To focus on:

focus on the essential. Direct attention to the object under study and try to highlight in it all the new sides, signs, features, properties. Make sure that attention is directed only to the object of interest to you and not allow it to switch to other objects;
do not fix irrelevant information, i.e. it must not be imprinted, nor repeated in memory;
discard non-existent information: it must be immediately replaced by the perception of new, more significant information.

mental states
non-pathological disorganization of consciousness

The organization of a person's consciousness is expressed primarily in his attentiveness, in the degree of clarity of awareness of the objects of reality. An indicator of the organization of consciousness is a different level of attentiveness. The absence of a clear direction of consciousness means its disorganization. In investigative practice, when evaluating the actions of people, it is necessary to keep in mind the various non-pathological levels of disorganization of consciousness.

One of the states of partial disorganization of consciousness is distraction. Distraction is usually referred to as two different phenomena:

firstly, the result of excessive deepening into work, when a person does not notice anything around him - neither the surrounding people and objects, nor various phenomena. This type of distraction is calledimaginary absent-mindednessbecause it is the result of great mental concentration;
secondly, the state when a person cannot concentrate on anything for a long time, when he constantly moves from one object or phenomenon to another, without dwelling on anything. This so-calledgenuine distraction,excluding any kind of concentration of attention. This type of absent-mindedness is a temporary disturbance of orientation, a weakening of attention. The reasons for true absent-mindedness can be: a disorder of the nervous system, blood diseases, lack of oxygen, physical or mental overwork, severe emotional experiences, a consequence of a traumatic brain injury, etc.

One of the types of temporary disorganization of consciousness is apathy - a state of indifference to external influences. This passive state is associated with a sharp decrease in the tone of the cerebral cortex and is experienced by a person as a painful state. Apathy occurs as a result of nervous overstrain or in conditions of sensory hunger. To a certain extent, apathy paralyzes a person's mental activity, dulls his interests, and lowers his orienting-research activity. The highest degree of non-pathological disorganization of consciousness occurs during stress and affect.

Constriction of attentiontoo little attention (2-3 units), observed in mental disorders, depression.

Weak attention distribution- a violation in many mental illnesses and conditions.

A person does not process all the information coming from the outside world, and does not respond to all influences. Among the variety of stimuli, he selects only those that are related to his needs and interests, expectations and relationships, goals and objectives - for example, loud sounds and bright flashes attract attention not because of their increased intensity, but because such a reaction meets the needs of a living being for safety. Due to the fact that attention is focused only on certain objects and only on the performance of certain tasks, the place of attention in a particular psychological concept depends on the importance attached to the activity of the subject of mental activity.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the following criteria for attention:

External reactions are motor and autonomic reactions that provide conditions for better signal perception. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components;

Focus on the performance of a certain activity - the state of absorption of the subject by the subject of activity, distraction from side, non-related conditions and objects;

Increasing the productivity of cognitive and executive activities;

Selectivity (selectivity) of information. This criterion is expressed in the ability to actively perceive, memorize, analyze only part of the incoming information, as well as in response to a limited range of external stimuli;

Clarity and distinctness of the content of consciousness in the field of attention.

Historically, attention is usually defined as the direction of consciousness and its focus on certain objects. However, if you try to generalize the entire phenomenology of attention, you can come to the following definition: Attention is the selection of the necessary information, the provision of selective programs of action and the preservation of constant control over their course. Representatives of the neurophysiological research area traditionally associate attention with the concepts of dominant, activation, and orienting response. The concept of "dominant" was introduced by the Russian physiologist A.A. Ukhtomsky. According to his ideas, excitation is distributed unevenly throughout the nervous system. Each activity can create centers of optimal excitation in the nervous system, which become dominant. They not only dominate and inhibit other foci of nervous excitation, but are even intensified under the influence of extraneous excitations. It was this characteristic of the dominant that allowed Ukhtomsky to regard it as a physiological mechanism of attention. The selective nature of the course of mental processes is possible only in the state of wakefulness, which is provided by a special structure of the brain - the reticular formation. Selective activation is provided by the descending influences of the reticular formation, the fibers of which begin in the cerebral cortex and go to the motor nuclei of the spinal cord. Separation of the reticular formation from the cerebral cortex leads to a decrease in tone and induces sleep. Violations of the functioning of the reticular formation lead to impaired attention. The phenomena and manifestations of attention are so diverse that it is possible to distinguish its types on different grounds. For example, W. James distinguishes the following types of attention, guided by three bases: 1) sensory (sensory) and mental (intellectual); 2) direct, if the object is interesting in itself, and derivative (indirect); 3) involuntary, or passive, requiring no effort, and voluntary (active), accompanied by a sense of effort. It is the latter approach that has proved especially popular. Classification on the basis of arbitrariness is the most traditional: historians of psychology find the division of attention into voluntary and involuntary already in Aristotle. In accordance with the degree of participation of the will in focusing attention, N.F. Dobrynin identified three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

involuntary attention

Involuntary attention is drawn to something without the intention to do so and does not require volitional effort. It, in turn, can be divided into forced (natural, innate or instinctive, determined by species experience), involuntary, depending rather on individual experience, and habitual, due to attitudes, intention and readiness to perform some kind of activity.

In its origin, it is most of all associated with “orienting reflexes” (I.P. Pavlov). The reasons that cause involuntary attention lie primarily in the characteristics of external influences - stimuli.

1. Among these features is the strength of the stimulus. Strong stimuli (bright light, intense colors, loud noises, pungent odors) easily attract attention, because, according to the law of force, the stronger the stimulus, the greater the excitement it causes.

2. Not only the absolute, but also the relative strength of irritation is important, i.e. the ratio of the strength of this impact with the strength of other, background, stimuli. No matter how strong the stimulus is, it may not attract attention if it is given against the background of other strong stimuli. In the noise of a big city, individual, even loud, sounds remain outside our attention, although they easily attract him when they are heard at night in silence. On the other hand, even the weakest stimuli become an object of attention if they are given against the background of the complete absence of other stimuli: the slightest whisper in complete silence around, a very weak light in the dark, etc.

3. In all these cases, the contrast between stimuli is decisive. It can concern not only the strength of stimuli, but also their other features. A person involuntarily pays attention to any significant difference: in shape, size, color, duration of action, etc. A small object stands out more easily among large ones; long sound - among jerky, short sounds; the colored circle is among the whites. The number is noticeable among the letters; foreign word - in Russian text; the triangle is next to the squares.

4. To a large extent, attention is attracted by sharp or repeated changes in stimuli, significant changes in the appearance of well-known people, things, periodic amplification or weakening of sound, light, etc. The movement of objects is perceived in a similar way.

5. An important source of involuntary attention is the novelty of objects and phenomena. Template, stereotypical, repetitive does not attract attention. The new easily becomes the object of attention - to the extent that it can be understood. For this, the new must find support in past experience.

6. Caused by external stimuli, involuntary attention is essentially determined by the state of the person himself. The same objects or phenomena may become the object of attention or not attract it, depending on the state of the person at the moment. An important role is played by the needs and interests of people, their attitude to what affects them. Everything that is connected with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of human needs (both organic, material, and spiritual, cultural) easily becomes the object of involuntary attention, everything that corresponds to his interests, to which he has a definite, clearly expressed and especially emotional attitude. Those who are interested in sports will pay attention to a poster announcing a sporting event, while a musician's attention will be attracted by an announcement about a concert, and so on.

7. A significant role is played by the mood and emotional state of a person, which to a large extent determine the choice of the object of attention.

8. The physical condition of a person is essential. In a state of severe fatigue, one often does not notice that which easily attracts attention in a cheerful state.

Arbitrary attention, which used to be called volitional attention, is drawn to an object and held on it with a conscious intention to do this and requires volitional efforts, therefore it was sometimes considered a stage of conflict, a waste of nervous energy. It is attracted and retained despite the factors of involuntary attention (not a new, not a strong stimulus, not related to basic needs, etc.), and is socially conditioned. Its formation, according to L.S. Vygotsky, begins with a pointing gesture of an adult who organizes the child's attention with the help of external means. It has a clearly expressed conscious, volitional character and is observed during the deliberate performance of any activity. It is an indispensable condition for labor, training, and work in general. For the effective implementation of any activity, expediency, concentration, direction and organization, the ability to be distracted from what is not essential for obtaining the intended result, are always necessary. Thanks to voluntary attention, people can engage not only in what they are directly interested in, captures, excites, but also in what does not have immediate attractiveness, but is necessary. The less a person is carried away by work, the more volitional efforts are required to focus attention. The reason that causes and maintains voluntary attention is the awareness of the value of the object of attention for the performance of this activity, the satisfaction of needs, while with involuntary attention the value of the object may not be realized.

Making significant efforts to get involved in the work, for example, starting to solve a complex geometric problem, the student, having found interesting ways to solve it, can be so carried away by the work that volitional efforts become unnecessary, although the consciously set goal will remain. This type of attention was named by N.F. Dobrynin's post-voluntary attention. For a person whose work is creative, this form of attention is very characteristic. A decrease in volitional tension during post-voluntary attention may be the result of the development of labor skills, especially the habit of working in a certain mode with concentration.

No other mental process, like attention, is mentioned so often in everyday life and at the same time finds its place in psychological concepts with such difficulty. Often attention explains success in study and work, and inattention explains mistakes, blunders and failures. However, in scientific psychology, the problem of attention stands somewhat apart, and researchers have significant difficulties in interpreting this concept and the phenomena behind it.

This situation is due to two extremely important facts. First, many authors emphasize the "dependence" of attention as a mental process. Both for the subject himself and for an outside observer, it opens up as an orientation, mood and concentration of any mental activity, i.e. only as a side or property of this activity. Secondly, attention does not have its own separate, specific product. Its result is the improvement of every activity to which it joins, while the presence of a characteristic product is the main evidence of the corresponding function. In this regard, some theoretical approaches deny the specificity of attention and the single essence of its manifestation; representatives of these theories unfairly consider attention to be a by-product or characteristic of other processes.

At the same time, we cannot deny the fact that a person does not process all the information coming from the outside world and does not respond to all influences. Among the variety of incentives, only those are selected that are related to needs and interests, expectations and attitudes, goals and objectives. Loud sounds and bright flashes attract attention not just because of their increased intensity, but because such a reaction meets the need of a living being for safety. However, among various needs and interests, among various tasks, a choice is made, and attention is focused only on certain objects and only on the fulfillment of certain tasks. Therefore, the place of attention in one or another psychological concept depends on the importance attached to the activity of the subject of mental activity.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the following criteria for attention:

external reactions - motor, vegetative, providing conditions for better signal perception. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components;

focus on a particular activity. This is the state of the subject's preoccupation with the subject of activity, distraction from side, non-related conditions and objects;

increasing the productivity of cognitive and executive activities;

selectivity (selectivity) of information. This criterion is expressed in the ability to actively perceive, memorize, analyze only part of the incoming information, as well as in responding only to a limited range of external stimuli;

clarity and distinctness of the contents of consciousness that are in the field of attention.

Attention is closely connected with the volitional activity of a person. The most traditional classification is based on arbitrariness. The division of attention into voluntary and involuntary historians of psychology already finds in Aristotle. In accordance with the degree of participation of the will in the concentration of attention, N. F. Dobrynin distinguished three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

involuntary attention arises unintentionally, without any special effort. By its origin, involuntary attention is most closely associated with "orienting reflexes" (IP Pavlov). The reasons that cause involuntary attention lie primarily in the features of external influences - irritants.

These features include stimulus strength. Strong stimuli (bright light, bright colors, loud sounds, strong smells) easily attract attention, because, according to the law of force, the stronger the stimulus, the greater the excitement caused by it.

It is important not only absolute, but also relative strength of irritation, i.e. the ratio of irritation in strength with other stimuli that make up, as it were, the background against which it appears. Even a strong stimulus may not attract attention if it is given against the background of other strong stimuli. In the street noise of a big city, individual, even strong, sounds do not always attract attention, but if they are heard at night in silence, they will certainly attract attention. However, even the weakest stimuli become an object of attention if they are given against the background of the complete absence of other stimuli: the slightest rustle in complete silence around, a very weak light in the dark, etc.

In all these cases, the determining factor is contrast between stimuli. It plays a very important role in attracting involuntary attention. And this applies not only to the strength of stimuli, but also to their other features. For any significant difference - in shape, size, color, duration of action, etc. - a person involuntarily pays attention. A small object stands out more easily among large ones; long sound - among jerky, short sounds; colored circle - among whites. The number draws attention among the letters; foreign word - if it is in the Russian text; triangle - when it is drawn among squares.

To a large extent, sharp or repeatedly repeated changes in stimuli: significant changes in the appearance of well-known things, people, periodic amplification or weakening of sound, light, etc. The same applies to the movement of objects.

An important source of involuntary attention is novelty of objects and phenomena. The new easily becomes the object of attention, while the stereotyped, stereotyped, repeatedly repeated does not attract attention. However, the new serves as an object of attention to the extent that it can be understood. And for this it must find support in past experience.

Being caused by external stimuli, involuntary attention is essentially determined by the state of the person himself. The same objects or phenomena may become the object of attention or not attract it, depending on the state of the person at the moment. An important role is played needs And interests people, their attitude to what affects them. Everything that is connected with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of needs (both organic, material, and spiritual, cultural), corresponds to interests, to which there is a certain, clearly expressed, and especially emotional attitude - all this easily becomes the object of involuntary attention. Those who are interested in sports will rather pay attention to the poster, which reports on a sports competition, than those who are not at all interested in sports life. The attention of the musician will certainly be attracted by the announcement of the concert, which may not be noticed at all by those whose interests are not related to music.

Play a significant role mood And emotional state of a person to a large extent determining what will attract attention from everything influencing at the moment.

Of significant importance fatigue or vice versa, cheerful state, in which the person is. It is well known that in a state of great fatigue one often fails to notice that which easily attracts attention in a cheerful state.

Arbitrary attention is clearly expressed, conscious, volitional in nature and is observed during the deliberate performance of any activity. Arbitrary attention is a prerequisite for work, training sessions, and work in general. For the effective implementation of any activity, expediency, concentration, direction and organization are always necessary - and at the same time the ability to be distracted from what is not essential for obtaining the intended result.

Thanks to voluntary attention, people can engage not only in what they are really interested in, captures, excites, but also in what does not have immediate attractiveness; do it not because you want to, but because you have to. The less a person is carried away by work, the more volitional efforts are required to focus attention. The reason that causes and maintains voluntary attention is the awareness of the value of the object of attention for the performance of this activity, the satisfaction of needs, while with involuntary attention the value of the object may not be realized.

Making significant efforts to get involved in the work, for example, starting to solve a complex geometric problem, the student, having found interesting ways to solve it, can be so carried away that volitional efforts become unnecessary, although the consciously set goal remains. This type of attention was called by N. F. Dobrynin post-voluntary attention. For a person whose work is creative, this form of attention is very characteristic. A decrease in volitional tension during post-voluntary attention may be the result of the development of labor skills and especially the habit of working in a certain mode with concentration.

TO properties(or characteristics) attention include its concentration, distribution, volume, switching and stability.

Concentration attention characterizes the intensity of concentration and the degree of distraction from everything that is not included in the field of attention. Important conditions for maintaining the optimal intensity of attention are the rational organization of labor, taking into account the individual characteristics of working capacity, as well as optimal external conditions (silence, lighting, etc.).

Distribution attention - this is such an organization of mental activity in which two or more actions are performed simultaneously, this is the ability to control several independent processes without losing any of them from the field of one's attention. The distribution of attention is often supplemented or replaced by its rapid switching. Many famous personalities could perform several activities at the same time. The main condition for the successful distribution of attention is that at least one action must be at least partially automated, brought to the level of a skill. Therefore, it is possible, for example, to easily combine watching a movie on TV and some manual work. It is more difficult to perform two types of mental labor. The most difficult thing is the distribution of attention between two thought processes with different content (for example, thinking about a thought and listening to a reasoning on a different topic). An attempt to be well aware of both series of thoughts causes a state of emotional tension.

Volume attention is the amount of unrelated objects that can be perceived both clearly and distinctly. It follows from the definition that the volume of attention is less than the volume of perception. In an adult, the amount of attention is on average 7 ± 2 elements. The limited scope of attention must be taken into account in practice if we want visual information to be “grasped” instantly.

Switching attention differs from its distraction in that it is a conscious, deliberate, purposeful change in the direction of mental activity, due to the setting of a new goal. Thus, any transfer of attention to another object cannot be attributed to switching. Training, special training can improve the shifting of attention. At the same time, it is closely related to such a property of nervous processes as their mobility, which introduces its own limitations on the possibility of training this property of attention.

Sometimes there are completed (complete) and incomplete (incomplete) switching of attention. In the first case, after switching to a new activity, a return to the previous activity periodically occurs, which leads to errors and a decrease in the pace of work. This, for example, happens when a new activity is uninteresting, when its necessity is not realized.

Sustainability attention is determined by the duration during which its concentration is maintained. Short-term fluctuations in attention, not noticed by the subject in the activity and not affecting its productivity, are inevitable, for example, in the case of blinking. The stability of attention depends on the characteristics of the material, the degree of its difficulty, comprehensibility, and the general attitude of the subject to it.

Speaking of the low stability of attention, we mean its increased distractibility. This opposite stability feature is understood as an involuntary shift of the focus of attention from one object to another. Distractibility can be associated with the action of both external objects and phenomena, and internal processes. External stimuli that divert attention from the activity performed are characterized by suddenness of manifestation, intensity or fluctuations in strength and frequency. For example, if at the time when you are listening and taking notes at lectures, a textbook falls on the floor of a student at the next table, you will involuntarily turn your head towards the noise you heard. Internal distractibility is associated with strong emotional experiences, obsessive thoughts, and the state of the body. We often catch ourselves reading a book or solving a problem and suddenly discover that we are doing it automatically, by inertia, without delving into the meaning of what we read, while our thoughts are not about this at all, but about some disturbing things. events, experiences, ideas, fantasies or dreams.

The opposite of attention and mindfulness is considered distraction, but it is not so. Sometimes we observe situations when a person who outwardly looks absent-minded, i.e. inattentive, not noticing people, objects, events, in fact, he is very focused on his work, thoughts, ideas, etc. Such, for example, is the absent-mindedness of scientists, inventors, creative people, writers, artists, completely captured by their creations, with the maximum concentration of attention on one object to the detriment of an adequate response to everyday circumstances. Such absent-mindedness is called imaginary, or pseudo-distractedness.

True absent-mindedness manifests itself in the inability to concentrate, increased distractibility ™ and, as a result, in low productivity. Often this is due to the peculiarities of the functioning of the nervous system or involutionary processes in old age.

8. Criteria for attention and inattention

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the following criteria for attention:

External reactions - motor and vegetative reactions that provide conditions for better signal perception. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components;

Concentration on the performance of a certain activity - the state of absorption of the subject by the subject of activity, distraction from side, non-related conditions and objects;

Increasing the productivity of cognitive and executive activities;

Clarity and distinctness of the content of consciousness in the field of attention.

Historically, attention is usually defined as the direction of consciousness and its focus on certain objects. However, if we try to generalize the entire phenomenology of attention, we can come to the following definition: Attention is the selection of the necessary information, the provision of selective action programs and the preservation of constant control over their course. Representatives of the neurophysiological research area traditionally associate attention with the concepts of dominant, activation, and orienting response. The concept of "dominant" was introduced by the Russian physiologist A.A. Ukhtomsky. According to his ideas, excitation is distributed unevenly throughout the nervous system. Each activity can create centers of optimal excitation in the nervous system, which become dominant. They not only dominate and inhibit other foci of nervous excitation, but are even intensified under the influence of extraneous excitations. It was this characteristic of the dominant that allowed Ukhtomsky to regard it as a physiological mechanism of attention. The selective nature of the course of mental processes is possible only in the state of wakefulness, which is provided by a special structure of the brain - the reticular formation. Selective activation is provided by the descending influences of the reticular formation, the fibers of which begin in the cerebral cortex and go to the motor nuclei of the spinal cord. Separation of the reticular formation from the cerebral cortex leads to a decrease in tone and induces sleep. Violations of the functioning of the reticular formation lead to impaired attention. The phenomena and manifestations of attention are so diverse that it is possible to distinguish its types on different grounds. For example, W. James distinguishes the following types of attention, guided by three bases: 1) sensory (sensory) and mental (intellectual); 2) direct, if the object is interesting in itself, and derivative (indirect); 3) involuntary, or passive, requiring no effort, and voluntary (active), accompanied by a sense of effort. It is the latter approach that has proved especially popular. Classification on the basis of arbitrariness is the most traditional: historians of psychology find the division of attention into voluntary and involuntary already in Aristotle. In accordance with the degree of participation of the will in focusing attention, N.F. Dobrynin identified three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

involuntary attention

3. In all these cases, the contrast between stimuli is decisive. It can concern not only the strength of stimuli, but also their other features. A person involuntarily pays attention to any significant difference: in shape, size, color, duration of action, etc. A small object stands out more easily among large ones; long sound - among jerky, short sounds; colored circle - among whites. The number is noticeable among the letters; foreign word - in Russian text; triangle - next to the squares.

7. A significant role is played by the mood and emotional state of a person, which to a large extent determine the choice of the object of attention.

8. The physical condition of a person is essential. In a state of severe fatigue, one often does not notice that which easily attracts attention in a cheerful state.

Making significant efforts to get involved in the work, for example, starting to solve a complex geometric problem, the student, having found interesting ways to solve it, can be so carried away by the work that volitional efforts become unnecessary, although the consciously set goal will remain. This type of attention was named by N.F. Dobrynin's post-voluntary attention. For a person whose work is creative, this form of attention is very characteristic. A decrease in volitional tension during post-voluntary attention may be the result of the development of labor skills, especially the habit of working in a certain mode with concentration.

Conclusion

In accordance with the principle of limited consciousness, only a small part of the information coming to a person passes into his conscious experience. This feature of consciousness is associated with attention. Attention has no content of its own, it is the dynamic side of all cognitive processes. Attention - the focus and concentration of consciousness, involves an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity of the individual. The focus of attention is manifested in selectivity, in arbitrary or involuntary choice, the allocation of objects that correspond to the needs of the subject, the goals and objectives of his activity. Concentration (concentration) on some objects implies a distraction from everything extraneous. Perceived becomes clearer and more distinct. Depending on the object of concentration (perceived objects, thoughts, movements, etc.), forms of attention are distinguished: sensory (perceptual), intellectual, motor (motor).

According to the nature of the origin and methods of implementation, two main types (levels) of attention are distinguished: involuntary and voluntary. Each of the forms of attention can manifest itself at different levels. In addition to arbitrary, one more special type of it is sometimes distinguished - post-voluntary.

Literature

1. Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas of psychology. M., 2007.

Forms of subject perception. The variety of receptor apparatuses and influences, in relation to which these receptors are sensitive, determines the existence of various sensations as the primary forms of mental reflection. Classification of receptors can be made according to the nature of interaction with the stimulus: distant (auditory, visual, olfactory) and contact (temperature, ...

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